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Pregnancy and IPV/DV
Pregnancy can be a vulnerable time for victims
of IPV/DV. Fifty to 70 % of women who were abused prior to
pregnancy are also abused during pregnancy. Among pregnant
teens, 26% reported that they were abused by their boyfriends
during pregnancy; almost half reported that the abuse began
or intensified prior to the pregnancy (NCADV, nd,b). Murder
is the second leading cause of injury-related death for pregnant
women (31%), after car accidents (NCADV, nd.b).
According to The Family Violence Prevention Fund (2004a),
15.9 percent of pregnant women are victims of IPV/DV; among
adolescents, the rate of victimization rises to 21.7 percent.
The consequences for women who were victimized during pregnancy,
as well as their infants, include (NCADV, nd,b; Jasinski,
2004; Gazmarian, et al., 2000):
- Late entry into prenatal care;
- Low birth weight babies;
- Anemia;
- Infections;
- Premature labor;
- Unhealthy maternal behaviors (such as smoking, drinking,
drug use, etc.);
- Fetal trauma;
- Sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV-1;
- Urinary tract-infections;
- Substance abuse;
- Depression;
- Post-partum depression; and
- Other mental health conditions.
It is recommended that all pregnant women be screened for the presence of IPV/DV (ACOG, 2011, COINN, 2010; Certain, et al., 2008).
Children and IPV/DV
Children who have been exposed to DV/IPV are more likely than their peers to experience a wide range of difficulties (USDHHS, CWIG, 2009). These difficulties fall into three main categories:
Behavioral, social and emotional problems. Children in families experiencing DV/IPV are more likely than other children to exhibit aggressive and antisocial behavior or to be depressed and anxious. Researchers have found higher levels of:
- anger, hostility, oppositional behavior, and disobedience;
- fear and withdrawal;
- poor peer, sibling and social relationships; and
- low self-esteem
Cognitive and attitudinal problems. Children exposed to DV/IPV are more likely to experience difficulties in school and score lower on assessments of verbal, motor, and cognitive skills. Slower cognitive development, lack of conflict resolution skills, limited problem solving skills, pro-violence attitudes, and belief in rigid gender stereotypes and male privilege are other issues identified in research.
Long term problems. Research indicates that males exposed to domestic violence as children are more likely to engage in domestic violence as adults; similarly, females are more likely to be victims. Higher levels of adult depression and trauma symptoms have been found.
Despite the findings of the research, not all children exposed to DV/IPV will experience such negative effects. Children’s risk levels and reactions to DV/IPV exist on a continuum; some children demonstrate enormous resiliency, while others show signs of significant maladaptive adjustment. Protective factors such as social competence, intelligence, high self-esteem, outgoing temperament, strong sibling and peer relationships, and a supportive relationship with an adult (especially a non-abusive parent), can help protect children from the adverse effects of exposure to DV/IPV.
Other factors that influence the impact of DV/IPV on children include (USDHHS, CWIG, 2009):
- Nature of the violence. Children who witness frequent and severe forms of violence or fail to observe their caretakers resolving conflict may undergo more distress than children who witness fewer incidences of physical violence and experience positive interactions between their caregivers.
- Age of the child. Younger children appear to exhibit higher levels of emotional and psychological distress than older children. Age-related difference might result from older children’s more fully developed cognitive abilities to understand the violence and select various coping strategies to alleviate upsetting symptoms.
- Elapsed time since exposure. Children often have heightened levels of anxiety and fear immediately after a violent event. Fewer observable effects are seen in children as time passes after the violent event.
- Gender. In general boys exhibit more externalized behaviors (e.g., aggression and acting out), while girls exhibit more internalized behaviors (e.g., withdrawal and depression).
- Presence of child physical or sexual abuse. Children who witness DV/IPV and are physically abused are at higher risk for emotional and psychological maladjustment than children who witness violence and are not abused themselves.
In homes where IPV/DV occurs, children learn that violence is a method of problem solving in interpersonal relationships. They also learn that in "loving" relationships, violence is a given.
In homes where IPV/DV occurs, children learn that violence
is a method of problem solving in interpersonal relationships.
They also learn that in "loving" relationships, violence is
a given.
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