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Risk factors are associated with a greater
likelihood of IPV/DV victimization or perpetration. Risk factors
are not necessarily direct causes of IPV/DV-these may be contributing
factors to IPV/DV (Heise & Garcia-Moreno, 2002). Not everyone
who is identified as "at risk" becomes involved in violence.
Some risk factors for IPV/DV victimization
and perpetration are the same. In addition, some risk factors
for victimization and perpetration are associated with one
another; for example, childhood physical or sexual victimization
is a risk factor for future IPV/DV perpetration and victimization.
The public health approach aims to moderate
and mediate those contributing factors that are preventable,
and to increase protective factors, which reduce risk of victimization
and perpetration.
A combination of individual, relational,
community, and societal factors contribute to the risk of
being a victim or perpetrator of IPV. Understanding these
multilevel factors can help identify various points of prevention
intervention.
Risk Factors for
Victimization
Individual Factors:
- Prior history of DV/IPV
- Being female
- Young age
- Heavy alcohol and drug use
- High-risk sexual behavior
- Witnessing or experiencing violence as a child
- Being less educated
- Unemployment
- For men, having a different ethnicity from their
partner's
- For women, having a greater education level than
their partner's
- For women, being American Indian/Alaska Native
or African American
- For women, having a verbally abusive, jealous,
or possessive partner
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Relationship Factors
- Couples with income, educational, or job status
disparities
- Dominance and control of the relationship by one
partner
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Community Factors
- Poverty and associated factors (e.g., overcrowding)
- Low social capital-lack of institutions, relationships,
and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a
community's social interactions
- Weak community sanctions against DV/IPV (e.g.,
police unwilling to intervene)
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Societal Factors
- Patriarchal gender norms (e.g., women should stay
at home, not enter workforce, should be submissive)
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(Crandall, et al., 2004; Heise & Garcia-Moreno, 2002; Stith,
et al., 2004; Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000a)
Risk Factors for Perpetration of
Violence
Multiple factors influence the risk of perpetrating IPV/DV
(Black, et al., 1999; Heise & Garcia-Moreno, 2002; Kantor
& Jasinski, 1998; Stith, et al., 2004; Tjaden & Thoennes,
2000a):
Individual Factors
- Low self-esteem
- Low income
- Low academic achievement
- Involvement in aggressive or delinquent behavior
as a youth
- Heavy alcohol and drug use
- Depression
- Anger and hostility
- Personality disorders
- Prior history of being physically abusive
- Having few friends and being isolated from other
people
- Unemployment
- Economic stress
- Emotional dependence and insecurity
- Belief in strict gender roles (e.g., male dominance
and aggression in relationships)
- Desire for power and control in relationships
- Being a victim of physical or psychological abuse
(consistently one of the strongest predictors of perpetration)
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Relationship Factors
- Marital conflict-fights, tension, and other struggles
- Marital instability-divorces and separations
- Dominance and control of the relationship by the
male
- Economic stress
- Unhealthy family relationships and interactions
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Community Factors
- Poverty and associated factors (e.g., overcrowding)
- Low social capital-lack of institutions, relationships,
and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a
community's social interactions
- Weak community sanctions against IPV (e.g., unwillingness
of neighbors to intervene in situations where they
witness violence
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Societal Factors
- Patriarchal gender norms (e.g., women should stay
at home, not enter workforce, should be submissive
to their male relatives, etc.)
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Date Rape/Sexual Assault/Drugs used
in Sexual Assault
These are drugs that are sometimes used to assist a sexual
assault. Sexual assault is any type of sexual activity that
a person does not agree to. It can include inappropriate touching,
vaginal penetration, sexual intercourse, rape, and attempted
rape. Because of the effects of these drugs, victims may be
physically helpless, unable to refuse sex, and can't remember
what happened. The drugs often have no color, smell, or taste
and are easily added to flavored drinks without the victim's
knowledge. There are at least three date rape drugs (USDHHS,
2004):
- GHB (gamma hydroxybutyric acid)
- Rohypnol (flunitrazepam)
- Ketamine (ketamine hydrochloride)
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Although the term "date rape" is commonly used, most experts
prefer the term "drug-facilitated sexual assault." These drugs
have been used to help people commit other crimes, like robbery
and physical assault, and have been used on both men and women
(USDHHS, 2004).
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Case Study
5. Tiffany
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Tiffany is 20 year old college student. Last year at
a dorm party (where Tiffany knew almost all of the people
who attended the party) she awoke in a friend's room,
under a pile of coats with no clothes on. She doesn't
remember at all what happened that night, except when
she awoke, there were others sleeping in the room on
the floor and her genital area was sore, wet and sticky.
She got dressed and ran back to her own room to find
her best friend and roommate. Tiffany cried with her
roommate and together they called the police. The police
officers brought her to the emergency room. In talking
with the nurse in the emergency department, Tiffany
learned that she had probably been victimized through
the use of so-called "date rape drugs".
Since that night, Tiffany has had a number of emotional
responses; some of them very distressing. She started
therapy because of difficulty with trust. She knew all
the people at the party; someone she knew had drugged
her and raped her; she just was so depressed when she
thought about it.
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The drugs can affect you quickly. The length of time that
the effects last varies. It depends on how much of the drug
is taken and if the drug is mixed with other substances, like
alcohol. Alcohol can worsen the drug's effects and can cause
more health problems. Also, one drug - GHB - can be made in
a home laboratory, so the exact ingredients are unknown (USDHHS,
2004).
GHB
GHB can cause the following:
- Relaxation
- Drowsiness
- Dizziness
- Nausea
- Problems seeing
- Unconsciousness (black out)
- Seizures
- Can't remember what happened while drugged
- Problems breathing
- Tremors
- Sweating
- Vomiting
- Slow heart rate
- Dream-like feeling
- Coma
- Death
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Rohypnol
Rohypnol can cause the following:
- Can't remember what happened while drugged
- Lower blood pressure
- Sleepiness
- Muscle relaxation or loss of muscle control
- Drunk feeling
- Nausea
- Problems talking
- Difficulty with motor movements
- Loss of consciousness
- Confusion
- Problems seeing
- Dizziness
- Confusion
- Stomach problems
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Ketamine
Ketamine can cause the following:
- Hallucinations
- Lost sense of time and identity
- Distorted perceptions of sight and sound
- Feeling out of control
- Impaired motor function
- Problems breathing
- Convulsions
- Vomiting
- Out of body experiences
- Memory problems
- Dream-like feeling
- Numbness
- Loss of coordination
- Aggressive or violent behavior
- Slurred speech
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